Most House districts are not competitive, with the Cook Political Report ranking 365 of 435 as solidly Republican or Democratic and only 18 as true toss-ups. As a result, primary elections with low turnout often determine winners, leaving general elections largely inconsequential.

While gerrymandering, partisan sorting, and demographic shifts have reduced competition, some states have adopted nonpartisan redistricting commissions or open primary systems to create fairer and more representative contests.

“In theory, what we want is the election that really decides who is going to serve in government to be one that was a higher-turnout election where campaigns, candidates, platforms, policies made some sort of difference in the outcome,” Richard Barton, assistant teaching professor of public administration and international affairs, tells the Washington Post. “But most of those general elections are just not competitive, and they’re not consequential.”

Barton can also be heard on the GD Politics podcast, discussing how to make elections competitve in a gerrymandered America.